Marine protected areas (MPAs) are key tools to mitigate human impacts in coastal environments, promoting
sustainable activities to conserve biodiversity. The designation of MPAs alone may not result in the lessening of
some human threats, which is highly dependent on management goals and the related specific regulations that
are adopted. Here, we develop and operationalize a local threat assessment framework. We develop indices to
quantify the effectiveness of MPAs (or individual zones within MPAs in the case of multiple-use MPAs) in reducing
anthropogenic extractive and non-extractive threats operating at local scale, focusing specifically on
threats that can be managed through MPAs. We apply this framework in 15 Mediterranean MPAs to assess their
threat reduction capacity. We show that fully protected areas effectively eliminate extractive activities, whereas
the intensity of artisanal and recreational fishing within partially protected areas, paradoxically, is higher than
that found outside MPAs, questioning their ability at reaching conservation targets. In addition, both fully and
partially protected areas attract non-extractive activities that are potential threats. Overall, only three of the 15
MPAs had lower intensities for the entire set of eight threats considered, in respect to adjacent control unprotected
areas. Understanding the intensity and occurrence of human threats operating at the local scale inside
and around MPAs is important for assessing MPAs effectiveness in achieving the goals they have been designed
for, informing management strategies, and prioritizing specific actions.
