Energy Cost of Human Locomotion on Land and in Water

Maximal absolute speeds in human locomotion range from a minimum of about 7km?h-1 in swimming (100m free style) to over 70km?h-1 in cycling (200m with a flying start), whereas the maximal muscular power of elite athletes competing in these events is essentially equal. Hence these large speed differences depend on the specific characteristics of each form of locomotion. These will be described in some detail with the aim of providing a comprehensive overview of the resulting energy cost of transport under different sets of conditions, such as constant versus accelerated or decelerated speed, uphill versus downhill slopes, the effects of barometric pressure, and of the characteristics of the terrain. The resulting overall picture can be condensed in a limited number of equations allowing us to predict overall energy expenditure as well as maximal speed in the locomotion considered, provided that a few parameters concerning the subject and the environmental conditions in question are known.