Precision medicine in heart failure no longer a visual theory but a realistic opportunity

Over the last decades, major advances in the understanding of pathophysiology in a wide spectrum of cardiovascular diseases provided several effective pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapies [1]. Along with novel rehabilitation and follow up strategies, these advances have improved the survival rate of cardiac diseases, globally, and contributed generally to a significant increase in life expectancy [2]. As a consequence, there is a parallel increase of patients suffering from challenging and multifaceted syndromes such as heart failure (HF). HF is a recognised pandemic disease, with a progressively increasing prevalence in the aging population [3]. It is a major public health issue, considering both its social and economic implications. HF patients are characterised by a high level of complexity because of the advanced age and the presence of multiple relevant comorbidities requiring dedicated polytherapy [1]. Therefore, overall mortality of HF patients is still unacceptably high, exceeding that of several neoplasms, carrying a risk of approximately 10% at 12 months from clinical onset [4].